INTRODUCTION TO PEOPLESE GRAMMAR

             Peoplese is a language infrastructure, which allows for cultural expression.  As a species lingua franca, it is not one-size-fits-all. For casual Peoplese speakers and writers, there is no wrong Peoplese.  Using basic Peoplese words (similar or identical to English words), you can use your own grammar without considering grammar rules. The criterion is:  if typical Peoplese speakers can comprehend, it is good Peoplese. Therefore it differs from other languages with their strict requirements. (Full explanation on Home and Overview pages.)

             "Casual Peoplese" refers to most communication:  conversation, electronic mail, light commerce, arrangements, ordering merchandise, workplace conversations -- almost everything that an average global citizen would need for communication. It can be learned by English speakers in one day, and by others in a few months to international travel level. "Professional Peoplese", used by a much smaller segment of the global population, is available for government documents, diplomatic speeches, scientific papers, legal arguments, commercial negotiations, contracts.  The grammar section below applies to professional Peoplese, and serves as a guide for casual Peoplese speakers.

            Peoplese grammar is based primarily on English grammar, yet Peoplese is simpler, more intuitive, and more flexible, requiring much less memorization, thus much easier and quicker to learn.

            Peoplese has two spelling versions, Alike English and Sound Spell Same.  (Details on Spelling pages.) The grammar of both spelling systems is the same.  This grammar section uses Alike English, which is completely understandable to English speakers.

WORD STRUCTURE

             Peoplese is based on root۔words to which can be add۔d prefixes and suffixes each with a fixed meaning.  The root-word, whose spelling never changes, is separated from prefix and suffix by a hyphnette (a half-length hyphen).  Examples:  wide۔er, pre۔pay, rain۔ing, tell۔d, spoon۔ful, re۔supply۔d. Each prefix and each suffix has one and only one meaning. It is not wrong to attach any prefix or suffix to any root-word.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

             The standard Peoplese active-mode structure is:  subject + verb + object.
                        Ex:  The boy throw۔d a ball.

             Exclamatory sentences use statement-sentence strucuture followed by an exclamation-mark.
                        Ex:  Wow!  Peoplese iz really easy and quick to learn!

             Question sentences
                        In writing, question-sentences end with a question mark.
                                    In speaking, we often raise the sound pitch of the final word of a sentence.
                        The basic Peoplese question sentence structure is:  verb + subject + verb-object
                                    To form a question, reverse the position of the subject and verb in a sentence.
                                    Ex:  Statement:  He iz going home.  Question:  Iz he going home?
                        [English has a similar structure:
                                    Ex:  Is he happy?  Will they meet Pablo?  Can we go?]
                        Questions using:  may, shall, can, could, would
                                    Form:  may, etc. + statement (with present-tense verb) + ?
                                    Ex:  Can we go?  (The statement equivalent is:  We can go.)
                                    Ex:  Should I eat more fruits?  (Statement:  I should eat more fruits.)
                        Question sentences using:  what, where, who, which, why, will, when.
                                    Ex:  What iz your name?
                                    Ex:  Where wuz you birth۔d?
                                    Ex:  Who iz your parents?
                                    Ex:  Which boy iz tall۔er?
                                    Ex:  Why you ask۔d?
                                    Ex:  Will these questions ever end?
                                    Ex:  When will yous stop ask۔ing me questions?
                        Add-on questions
                                    Ex:  You finish۔d your dinner, correct?
                        Questions are not formed using "do" or "did".
                                    Ex:  English "Do you want more coffee?" -> Peoplese "Want you more coffee?
                                    Ex:  English "Did you lose your wallet?" -> Peoplese "Lose-d you your wallet?

             Hypothetical sentences
                         Hypothetical sentences express wishes, suggestions, proposals, imaginary situations.
                         Usually a two-part sentence, with one part containing "would" instead of "will".
                                    Ex:  If I wuz you, I would learn Peoplese so I can communicate globally.
                                    Ex:  Would you be happy if you wuz rich?

WORD CATEGORIES (English "parts of speech")
 

            Autoknow Words

                Autoknow words are formed with two (occasionally three) words separated by a mid-dot.
                        A mid-dot is a raised period; in dictionaries, it is often used to separate syllables.
                        Autoknow words can be nouns, verbs, adverbs, adnouns, whatever.

                (A mid-dot can be typed on computer keyboard by pressing the “alt” key plus one other
                        key of your choice.  See FAQ for simple instructions.)

                The criterion for an autoknow word is:  If you know the words comprising an autoknow word,
                        you automatically know it's meaning.

                Most autoknow words are formed with common words.
                        Ex:  wrist·clock, blue·berry, camp·fire, couch·table, war·ship, doll·house, wild·flower.

                Borderline autoknow words
                        Ex:  collarbone or collar·bone?  ?  If you know what “collar” and “bone” means, will you automatically know the meaning of “collarbone”, the bone linking the scapula and sternun below the neck?  Some people maybe, some people not.  So, insert mid-dot or not?  Answer:  either.  Both correct.  If you think most people would know the meaning of the autoknow word, use it; if not, not.  The majority may eventually rule – or not; maybe both versions will remain.

                Benefits of autoknow words:
                         No memorization is required.
                         Years later, if you come across the word, you will know it's meaning.
                         You are encouraged to invent your own autoknow word for a word you don't  know, a concept you or others have created, or for fun.  Peoplese, as an evolving language, depends on its speakers to continually update the language. As life changes and technology advances, autoknow words are the first choice for something new.

                 Contractions are likewise formed with a mid-dot, rather than an apostrophe as in English.
                          Ex:  "I'll", meaning "I will", becomes "I·will".   Useful, e.g., for fiction writers.

                 Peoplese has more than 1,500 mid-dot words, and counting.
                 For a partial list, click on "autoknow word examples" in the LINK column above.

            Compound Words

               Compound words, like autoknow words, are comprised of two, occasionally three words, with no punctuation between them -- because they do not meet the "automatically know" requirement. Yet a good compound word contains an indication of it's meaning, therefore is relatively easy to remember.
                          Ex:  airforce, bestman, blackeye, birdcall, facelift, juicepress, parttime, willpower.

               Other compound words add color to the language, also an aid to memory.
                          Ex:  cocktail, bullseye, spymole, cabinfever, familytree, softheart, nestegg.

               A second use of compound words it to combine common English word combinations into a single word.  E.g. English "of course" (which makes no sense) becomes Peoplese "ofcourse".
                          Ex:  incase, incharge, justthen, wouldbe, sosoon, proforma, inperson, incommon,
                                       defacto, dejure, gungho, ipsofacto, lastditch, lawstraw, nextdoor.

               Compound words are also used to eliminate homonyms (identically sounding words with different meanings). E.g. nounarticle, because "article" has another main meaning.  Note that "nounarticle" (a, an, the preceding a noun) is easier to remember than "article", because "nounarticle" has a hint of its meaning.
                          Ex:  arrowbow, moneybank, musicbar, stopbrake, publicpark, viceclamp, soundpitch.

                Good compound words are therefore a good second choice for naming new things, if we can't conceive of a autoknow word.  See Creating New Words" page for guidelines.

                The focus of Peoplese is children.  Regardless of their educational situation, youngsters can without much study learn the global lingua franca, thereby expanding their opportunities, while continuing to speak their native language.

     NOUNS

            A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing.

                    A common noun is a word for a type of person, place, or thing (concrete or abstract).
                              Example:  man, library, book, stadium, balls, picnics, love, joy, benevolence.

                    A proper noun (always capitalized) is a word for a specific person, place, or thing.            
                              Ex:. Taj Mahal, mister Rogers, Arab League, Canterbury Tales, Argentina.

                    Gerunds are another type of noun - described below.

                    In a sentence, the subject, verb-object, indirect-object, and preposition-object are nouns.
                              Ex:  The man throw۔d the ball to the boy in the stadium.
                              The subject (the man) is the main focus of the sentence. 

                    A sentence describes what the sentence-subject does, thinks, feels, and so on.
                              The verb-object receives the action of the verb.
                              Ex:  What did the man throw?  He throw۔d the ball (the verb-object).

                    The indirect-object is the recipient of the verb-object.
                               Ex:  Above, the recipient of the ball is the boy (the indirect-object).

                    Prepositional phrases add meaning to sentences.
                               A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition followed by a preposition-object.
                               (More about prepositional phrases, and a list of prepositions, below.)
                               Ex:  Above, “in” is the preposition, “stadium” is the preposition-object.

            Function-nouns

  A function noun is a noun that designates a function. 

            Function-nouns are a quick non-verbose way to designate function and gender.
                       Word-endnigs "-orm" and "-ort" are optional, used to clarify gender when necesary.
                               Otherwise the "-or" ending is used for things, either gender, and non-binary genders.

  Function-nouns can be active or passive.

            Active Function-nouns
                               Criterion:  "we can say, "that which + verb" or "one who + verb"
                                        "one who" can also be:  he who, she who, they who, we who, ta who, etc.
                                        Ex: estimate-or = "that which estimates" or "he or she who estimates"
                               Form:  verb-root + hyphnette + or / orm / ort
                                        ۔or = neutral, either gender or another gender; ۔orm = female; ۔ort = male.
                               Ex:  amplify۔or (that which amplifies), farm۔orm (she who farms), toast۔or (that which
                                        toasts), babble ۔ors (they who babble), avenge۔or (he or she who avenges),
                                        blend۔or (that which blends, a mechanical devise that blends foods).
                               Ex:  inform۔ort, perform۔orms, golf۔orm, hike۔ors, dance-ort.

            Passive Function Nouns
                               Passive Function Nouns receive the action in the sentence.
                               Form:  verb-root + hyphnette + eer / eerm / eert
                               Ex:  insult۔eer (somebody who was insulted), adore۔eerm (a female adored),
                                        blame۔eert (he who was/is blamed), rescue۔eer (he or she who was rescued).
                               Ex:  employ۔eer (English employee), detain۔eert (male detainee), colonize۔eer.
                               Ex:  English ambiguous “renter” could be “rent۔or” (one who rents, e.g. the landlord)
                                        or “rent۔eer” (one who pays the rent).

                        Lists of function nouns are viewable on "function noun examples", at top of this page. 

            Non-functional Gender-specific Nouns

                Non-function gender-specific nouns describe people, but they do not qualify as function-nouns.

           Form : word-root + or / orm / ort  (word endings, attached to root word with no hyphnette).
                            “orm” word-ending designates female; “ort”, male; “or” (gender not spcified).
                      Ex:  villagor (not a function word because we cannot say “he who or that which villages”)
                      Ex:  foreignor (not somebody who foreigns, so doesn't qualify as a function noun)
                      Ex:  toddlor (gender not specified), youngstorm (female youngster), hairs·stylorm (female).

           Many English words ending in “er” are translated to Peoplese with an “or” word-ending.
                                  Ex:  strangor, soldior, partnor, teenagorts, scholor (English scholar), outsidor. 
                                  Thus, a strangorm is a woman, a partnort a man; a scholor could be anybody.

Non-countable Nouns

              Nouns are also categorized as countable and uncountable.

              Countable nouns can be counted.  Ex:  houses, toys, ships, cats.

                      Uncountable nouns cannot be counted.
                                  Ex:  rain, advice, beer, philosophy, gas, heat, wood, heat, dirt.

                      Examples of nonountable nouns:
                                  Liquids & gases:  water, milk, coffee, beer.  Air, gas, oxygen, smoke.
                                  Granular:  rice, wheat, corn, flour, salt, sugar, sand.
                                  Abstractions:  beauty, competence, happyness.  Education, socialism.
                                  Nature:  weather, haze, mist, rain, hail, snow, thunder, sunshine.

              Some nouns are classified as countable in some languages, noncountable in others.

                      Peoplese generally follows English, but eliminates inconsistencies.
                                  Ex:  English “fruit and vegetables” because “fruit” is considered noncountable
                                             and vegetables countable.  Peoplese:  “fruits and vegetables”.

                      English noucountable-nouns (in plural form) that Peoplese classifies as countable:
                                  fishes, fruits, furnitures.

                      Adnouns which imply plurality do not precede singular noun and noncountable nouns:
                                  each, either, every, neither, these, those.  That is common sense.
                                  (Adnouns are similar to English adjectives, except that they enhance only nouns,
                                             in the same way that adverbs enhance only verbs.  More below.)

                      Countable and uncountable nouns are treated differently with regard to nounarticles (below).
            ;                     For things we can count, we use:  many + plural noun.
                                             Ex:  many boats, many apples
                                  For noncountable-nouns, use:  much + singular noun.
                                             Ex:  much water, much laughter

                      Noncountable nouns can be rendered countable by adding a countable-noun.
                                  Form:  countable-noun + of + uncountable noun
                                  Ex:  two buckets of water, two liters of milk, an hour of advice, four sacks of sand.
                                  Ex:  those two tanks of helium.  Ex:  Neither liter of milk iz fresh.

                      There is no clear bountry between countable and uncountable.  One Peoplese writer may
                                  consider a noun countable that another writer from another culture  considers
                                             noncountable – both correct in Peoplese.
                                  Ex:  Are tree leaves countable?  Theoretically, yes.  English, and Peoplese,
                                             put “leaves” in the countable category;  Peoplese “many leafs”, but “much
                                             leafs” is also acceptable, reflecting the view that tree leaves are not
                                             realistically countable.  “grass”, on the other hand, clearly nocountable.

                       And anybody can add plural “s” to a noncountable noun, whether as a whim, for a  laugh,
                                             creating new slang, artistic expression, whatever.
                                  Thus you may have heard, “Two coffees, please.”, “Those vases are beautys.”
                                              Song lyrics, "many waters".

          Prefixes and Suffixes

                     A key feature of Peoplese is the use of prefixes and suffixes, each with a unique meaning.

                     Each prefix and suffix is separated from a word-root by a hyphnette (a half-length hyphen).
                                   The spelling of the word-root never changes.

                     Any prefix or suffix can be added to any word-root that makes sense to the speaker.

                     The suffix "-ful", meaning "filled to quantitative capacity", is used for physical situations.
                                    Ex: truck۔ful, arm۔ful, bowl۔ful, airplane۔ful.
                             For abstract situations, word-ending "ful" is attached to root word without a hyphen-et.
                                    Ex:  plentyful, grateful, wonderful.

                     For the reason that "farm۔or" is hyphenated and "partnor" is not, see Function Nouns above.

                     For more details, and complete lists, click on "Prefixes" and "Suffixes" in the LISTS column above.                

Nounarticles:  a, an, ap, the

                       Preceding singular nouns, nounarticles are permitted but not required.  When useful, they are handy to insert; when not needed for clarification, they clutter.  In English, the most frequently used word is one of the least useful: “the”.  Oriental and southeastern Asian languages have no nounarticles, and can clearly communicate meaning. E.g., "In India at end of dry season..."  In the sentence, "In India at the end of the dry season,...", both "the's" add nothing but clutter.  

                       Nounarticles do have a function. The nounarticle “the” is used when referring to something already mentioned or that the listener/reader is assumed to have knowledge of. 

                       Ex:  “Of all desserts, i like chocolate cake best” (not “the best”) refers to all desserts, not only those at hand.  “Of all the desserts, i like chocolate cake best” refers to specific deserts, e.g., those on the restaurant menu.

                       “a” emphasizes that the noun is not specific.  Ex:  I hope to find a job soon.

                       “an” has the same meaning as “a” but with an added “n” to distinguish it from the subsequent noun beginning with a vowel.  Ex:  an enjoy۔able evenin, an open mind.

   "ap" is a nounarticle meaning "approximately". Ap twenty peoples attend۔d.

   “the moon” commonly refers to Earth’s moon, although there are zillions of moons.

   Nounarticles generally precede adnouns which precede the noun.
                          Ex:  a good job; the full moon, the chocolate cake.

   Peoplese speakers from China probably won't use many or any nounarticles;
                          speakers from Europe and South America, probably will use many.

         Nations & Regions - names, adjectives, and demonyms. 

                        Of course, Peoplese uses native names -- not colonial or English names -- for places.
                        To view lists, click on LISTS column at the top of this page.
                        Place names, along with all proper names, are capitalized.
                        In texts, footnotes are often used to clarify proper names that might not be recognizeable.

         Language names

                        For explanation and list, you may click on 'language names' in the LISTS column above.

         Pronouns  (click on "Pronouns" in menu at top of this page)

        Gerunds

            Gerunds, which are converted from verbs, can act as verbs, nouns, and adnouns.

           Form:  verb-root + hyphnette + in.   (As always, spelling of verb-root never changes.)

            Gerunds used as nouns.
                      Ex:  Smile۔in iz contageous.  I love dance۔in.  Teach۔in iz difficult work.

            Gerunds used as adnouns.  (Adnouns enhance nouns by adding description.)
                      Ex:  A sleep۔in giant iz fearsome.  That talk۔in bird iz amaze۔y!.

            Gerunds, unlike common nouns, can be followed by objects.
                      Ex:  Play۔in basketball iz fun.  Eat۔in those muchrooms upset my stomach.

             (Chinese has an accurate name for "gerund: 动名词, "verb-noun-word".)

             In Peoplese, unlike English, objects of verbs can be either gerunds or infinitives, regardless of the verb.
                      Ex:  He advise۔d continue۔in.  He advise۔d to continue.  He advise۔d continue.
                      Ex:  Dont forget to buy fruit.  Dont forget buy۔in fruit.  Dont forget buy fruit.
                      The above examples are all comprehendable, and all are correct.  Chinese speakers would probably prefer "Dont forget buy fruit", as it matches their language; Spanish speakers would tend to say "Dont forget to buy fruit" because it matches their language.  English speakers would probably say "Don't forget to buy fruit" because "forget" is one of the English verbs that requres an infinitive object.
                      Eventually we could expect "to", because it is superfluous, to vanish from Peoplese.

       ADNOUNS

        Adnouns add description to nouns in the same way that adverbs add description to verbs.

        Adnouns are similar to English adjectives, except that adnouns describe only nouns.

        Adnouns don't modify (change) nouns; they enhance nouns.
                      Ex:  "the tall handsome Indian boy" -- much more descriptive than merely "the boy".

        Adnouns generally precede nouns.  Yet adnouns can be placed after the noun or elsewhere in
                      a sentence according to the speaker or writer’s choice or cultural preference.

        Nouns can have no adnouns, one adnoun, or several adnouns.  Ex:  cute little red house,

        Commas between adnouns are not required, although they may be added for clarity.

        When a noun is preceeded by several adnouns, generally the adnouns are listed in order of
                      importance – unless a reason (e.g. artistic preference) why not.
                      Ex:  “green slim۔y gigantic fish” is poor diction; “gigantic” should normally come first.

             Adnoun Endings

               Definitions
                      Word-ending:  one or more letters added to a root-word without punctuation.
                                 Word-endings often indicate parts of speech (e.g. adnoun), but they do not
                                            have unique meanings.  Ex:  accidental, illusive, generous, historic.
                      Suffix:  one or more letters added to a root-word after a hyphenette (half-hyphen).
                                 Each suffix has a unique meaning.  Ex: big۔er, hat۔less, home۔ward.

               Most of the oldest adnouns that Peoplese copies from English have no word-endings.
                      Ex: good, round, tall, fast, blue, bright, wet, old, deep, hot, cold.

               Typical adnoun word-endings:  al, eous, iac,  ial, ic, ious, ous, sive, tive, ual.
                      Ex:  vocal, generous, maniac, global, basic, serious, pourous, festive, usual.
                      These adnoun word-endings all have various uses, thus are not suitable as suffixes.

                Adnoun-suffixes
                      Each Peoplese adnoun-suffix has a unique meaning.
                      An adnoun-suffix can be added (after a hyphnette) to any word.
                      Adnoun-suffixes include:  ۔er, ۔est, ۔ful, ۔ish, ۔less, ۔proof, ۔ward, ۔tall.
                                   Ex:  cheap۔er, sharp۔est, truck۔ful, child۔ish, error۔less, rain۔proof, sky۔ward.
                      The default adnoun-suffix is:  ۔y.  Ex:  fog۔y, guilt۔y, ice۔y, sag۔y, sun۔y, fire۔y.
                                   When forming new adnouns, ۔y suffix is our first choice.
                      For a complete list of suffixes, click "Suffixes" in the LISTS column above.
                                   To view a list of adnouns, at the top of this page click on "Word Categories".

 
            Adnoun Types

                        Static-adnouns

                              Static-adnouns describe a general situation.

                              Default form:  word-root + hyphnette + y

                              Ex:  red ball, tall man, health۔y baby, amaze۔y statement, anger۔y man
                              Ex:  pollute۔y air (a general situation)

                        Continuous-adnouns

                              Continuous-adnouns describe something that the noun is doing (or not doing) now.

                              Form:  verb-root + hyphnette + ing.

                              Note:  If the adnoun does not describe that the noun is doing or not doing,
                                         the adnoun does not have an "ing" suffix or word-ending.

                              Continuious adnouns are equivalent to English present-participles used as adjectives.   
                              Ex:  English "smiling girl" → Peoplese "smile۔ing girl"  (the girl is smiling)
                                     Boil۔ing water, loosen۔ing necktie, die۔ing cat, grow۔ing puppy, warm.ing climate,
                                     deteriorate۔ing relationship, rapid۔ly learn۔ing student, rot۔ing fruits,
                                     surround۔ing enemy  (the enemy is doing something, surrounding the fort)
                                     the nolonger smoke۔ing fire  (example of negative).

                              Note that in Peoplese, an "-ing" suffix always refers to continuing action, whether a verb or an adnoun. In English, by contrast, words ending in “ing” can be verbs (falling), nouns (sibling), adjectives (amazing), adverbs (notwithstanding), and pronouns (everything).

                        Passive-adnouns

                              Passive-adnouns are formed from verbs in passive-mode.  Like all adnouns, they add description to nouns.

                              Most passive-adnouns describe something that the noun has done or experienced.

                              Form:  verb-root + hyphnette + t

                              Criterion:  If somebody or something is thought to have effected the adnoun, it is a passive adnoun.

                              (English:  Passive-adnons are equivalent to past-participles used as adjectives.)

                              Note:  In Peoplese, no adnouns end in "-d" suffix, which is reserved for past tense.

                              Ex:  abandon۔t car  (The car was abandoned by somebody.)
                              Ex:  The break۔t window wuz never fix۔t.  (The window was broken but not fixed by somebody.)
                              Ex:  belove۔t aunt, weave۔t tapestry, pay۔t bill.
                              Ex:  The surround۔t fort wuz in danger.

                              Active mode:  The forest surround the house.

                              Negatives take the same form.
                                         Ex:  non۔test۔t formula, non۔develop۔t sense of morality

                              Not all passive-adnouns refer to past situations.
                                         Ex:  A script۔t ceremony will lack spontaneity.
                                                A modify۔t version would be more popular.
                                                Clean۔ly dress۔t childs usual۔ly make a good impression.
                                                Promply pay۔t bills ensure good commercial relationships.

                              Adverbs are used to enhance passive-adnouns, whose root-words are verbs.
                                         Ex:  newl۔y fix۔t car, clean۔ly shave۔t man, thick۔ly populate۔t city.

                              For further discussion of passive mode, click on "Active & passive modes" above.

            Adnouns used as nouns

                        Ex:  the best and the worst.  The scam۔ors target۔d the gullible.

            Simple and Compound Adnoun Suffixes

                        Form:  root-word + hyphnette + suffix

                        Each adnouns suffix has a unique meaning.

                        Simple Adnoun suffixes:  ۔able, ۔alike, ۔bound, ۔er, ۔est, ۔high, ۔ing, ۔y, and many more.

                        Compound Adnoun Suffixes.  Common sense, no need to memorize.

                        Ex:  truck۔ets  (plural of "truck۔et")  The root-word is always isolated for easy recognition.
                               ۔fuls      From ۔ful + ۔s   Ex:   plate۔fuls  (plural of "plate۔ful").
                               ۔ins       From ۔in + ۔s.   Plural gerund suffix.
                               ۔lessly   From ۔less + ۔ly    Ex:  need۔lessly
                               ۔ors, ۔orms, ۔orts    From ۔or + ۔s, ۔orm + ۔s, ۔ort + s
                               ۔yer.       From ۔y + ۔er.   Ex:  wealth۔yer  [English “wealthier”].
                               ۔yest.     From ۔y + ۔est.  Ex:  thrift۔yest  [English “thriftiest”]
                               ۔yly        From ۔y + ۔ly.  Ex:  thirst۔yly
                               ۔yness   From ۔y + ۔ness   Ex:  mess۔yness 

            Regional Adnouns

                        To convert a regional name into a regional adjective, add suffix "y"nto the name.

                        Ex:Indonesia-y currency, France-y architecture, Kenya-y population.

                        Ex:  Therefore the English word "French" is translated into Peoplese as either
                               Francen (a person), France-ese (the language), or France-y (a description)
                               France-y architecture was designed by Francen architects who spoke France-ese.

   For a list of national adjectives, click on above LISTS, then  " ".

 ADADNOUNS

            Adadnouns are words that add descriptions to adnouns.

                          Most Peoplese speakers and writers won't bother with adadnouns, unnecessary.

            In the same way, adverbs add description to verbs, adnouns add description to nouns.

     Form:  word-root + hyphnette + by.
                Suffix “by” is pronounced “bee”, as on honeybee, rhymes with “see”.)
 
  Any word-root can be used, regardless of it’s part-of-speech.
                Ex:  amaze۔by beautyful  (verb + by).  bitter۔by un۔happy  (adnoun + by).
                Ex:  pale۔by blue eyes (adadnoun “pale۔by” describes adnoun “blue”, which describes "eyes".
                Ex:  clear۔by visible, basic۔by accurate, fabulous۔by rich, full۔by automatic.
                Most Peoplese speakers will say, "pale blue eyes".

VERBS

             Peoplese, unlike English, has no present-participles or past-participles.  Discussion below.

             Peoplese, unlike English, does not have the concept of transitive and intransitive verbs.
                        English students must learn which verbs are transitive (require an object) and which
                                are intransitive (do not require an object), and use them accordingly.
                        Peoplese substitutes this memory-demanding requirement with common sense.
                                Peoplese speakers can say, “Please remind” if the meaning is clear.
                                       If not clear, they may say, “Please remind me.”

             Irregular  Verbs

                        Peoplese has only two irregular verbs: forms of “be” and “have”.

ROOT	PRESENT-SIMPLE	PAST-SIMPLE	PASSIVE	FUTURE SIMPLE
to be	iz	wuz	been	will be, shall be
have	have	had	had	will have, shall have

                        Copulas (forms of the verb “to be”):  iz, wuz, be, being, been, will be, shall be.

              Present-tense Peoplese copula is “iz”, replacing English “is”, “am”, and “are”.

                                    Ex:  Iz youall happy?  They iz happy, but i iz not.

                                    Present tense is also used for general statements.  Ex:  The Earth iz spherical.

                        Past-tense Peoplese copula is “wuz”, replacing English “was” and “were”.

                                    Ex:  He wuz late, so they wuz angry.

                        “been” is also used as a helping verb to form tenses.  (See tense list, below.)

                        Generally, copulas add no meaning except tense designation. 

            Better, if possible, to replace copulas with more descriptive verbs.

    Ex:  English “I have been to Japan” → I have travel۔d to Japan.  I have visit۔d Japan.

    Ex:  English “He hopes to be an actor” → He hope to become an act۔or.

    Ex:  English “I will be back in an hour” → I will return within an hour.

                         Some English sentences do not have word-for-word translations; the concept must be translated.

                                    Ex:  English “Truth can be cruel” → Truth iz sometimes cruel.

                                    Ex:  Be prepared! → “Prepare!”

            Past-simple tense of “go” is “go۔d”. “gone” is an adnoun.  Ex:  She iz gone.

            “have” means “possess”.  And “have” and its past-tense “had” are used as helping verbs to form tenses.

            In future-simple “will + be / go / do”, “will” can be replace۔d by “may”, “can”, “could”, “shall”, etc.

                        Ex:  He may be angry.  She can go tomorrow.  He could do it if he would try.

                        When negative, “not” is inserted between “will” and be / go / do / have.  Ex:  I will not go. 

 VERB TENSES in Active and Passive Modes

            Tense indicates when the action of the verb occurs.

            For casual Peoplese users (chatting, marketing, traveling), the four simple tenses  (past, present, continuing, and

                        future) are sufficient.  The other tenses express nuanced meanings; many are seldom used.

            Passive mode – notes below.

VERB TENSES

Present-simple  [English “present”, “simple present”]

            Active-mode:  She sing the song.    [English:  She sings the song.]

            Passive-mode  The song is sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song is sung by her.]

            Form of all passive verbs:  verb-root + hyphnette + t

            Usage:  Present-simple tense verbs refer to action or condition occur۔ing in the present,

also used to show habits, repetition, generalizations, and scheduled actions.

            Note:  Peoplese does not add “s” to verbs.  [English adds “s” after third-person present-tense verbs.]

            Examples:  If you speak English, you can understand Peoplese.  Earth spin in it’s axis.

She always drink a cup of coffee after breakfast.  I believe God exist.

Two buses depart every morning at eight oclock.

Present-continuous  [English “present progressive”, “present continuous”]

            Active:  She iz sing۔ing the song.   [English:  She is singing the song.]

            Passive The song is being sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song is being sung by her.]

            Active form:  copula + verb-root + hyphnette + ing

            Passive form:  copula + be / being + verb-root + hyphnette + t

            Usage:  Present-continuous verbs refer to something that is happening currently, frequently, or generally.

            Examples:  He iz eat۔ing rice.  (currently)   Ex:  She iz learn۔ing Peoplese. (generally)

Past-to-present-continuous  [English “present perfect continuous”, “present perfect progressive”.]

            Active:  She have been sing۔ing since one oclock.    [English:  She has been singing since one o’clock.]

            Passive:   –                                                                      –

 Usage:  This tense indicate an action or began in the past and continues to the present. 

 Note:  Emphasis is on duration, not action.

            Active form:  have + been + verb-root + hyphnette + “ing”

            Relevant words:  dur, recent۔ly, late۔ly

            Examples:  Who have you been talk۔ing to dur the recent۔est hour?

                        He have not been teach۔ing since he become۔d sick three years ago.

                        My son have been play۔ing ball all afternoon.  I have been reside۔ing here all my life.

Present-possible

            Active:  She can sing the song.   [English:  She can sing the song.]

            Passive:  The song can be sing۔t by her.   [English:  The song can be sung by her.]

                        Present-conditional  [English “simple conditional, conditional present.]

                                    Active:  She would sing the song.    [English:  She would sing the song.]

                                    Passive:  The song would be sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song would be sung by her.]

                                    Usage:  Verbs in this tense are used in main clauses of sentences that depend on a condition. 

                                            The condition, can be stated in a conditional clause (often beginning with “if…”), or the condition

                                                    may be implied or referred to by earlier sentences.

                                    Active form for the main clause:  would + verb-root

                                    Passive form:  would + be + verb-root + hyphnette + t

                                    Note:  "would" can be substituted with "should" or "could".

                                    Examples:  If i had purchase۔d that land ten years ago, i would be rich now.

                                            If i iz you, i would go now.  [English:  If i were [sic] you, i would go now.]

                                            If you go now, you would arrive on time.  [English:  If you went now, you would arrive on time.]

Past-simple  [English “past”, “simple past”]

            Active:  She sing۔d the song.   [English:  She sang the song.]

            Passive The song wuz sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song was sung by her.]

            Active form of past-simple verbs:  verb-root + hyphnette + d

            Passive form:  wuz + verb-root + hyphnette + t

Past-continuous  [English “past-continuous”, “past progressive”]

            Active:  She wuz sing۔ing the song.     [English:  She was singing the song.]

            Passsive:  The song wuz being sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song was being sung by her.]

            Active form:  wuz + verb-root + hyphnette + “ing”.

            Passive form:  wuz + being + verb-root + hyphnette + t

 Usage:  Past-continuous tense verbs are used when a past action was interrupted, or when two past

actions occurred simultaneously.  Emphasis is on the action, not on duration.

Past-comparison  [English “past perfect”, “past perfect progressive”, “pluperfect”]

            Active:  She had sing۔t the song.    [English;  She had sung the song.]

            Passive:   She song had been sing۔t by she.   [English:  The song had been sung by her.]

            Usage:  Past-comparison tense verbs express an action that occur۔d one or more times in the past before

                        another event in the past.

            Active form:  had + verb-root + hyphnette + “d”

            Passive form:  had + been + verb-root + hyphnette + t

            Relevant words:  since, dur [equivalent of English “during”], entire (time)

            Examples:  She had study۔d Korea۔ese before she travel۔d to Korea.

                        My daughter had learn۔d the alphabet before she start۔d school.

                        By the time she receive۔d her doctorate, she had study۔d 21 years in schools.

                        I had not finish۔d my dinner, when the door·bell ring۔d.

Past-experience  [English “present perfect”]

            Active:  She have sing۔d the song.    [English:  She has sung the song.]

            Passive:  The song have been sing۔t by she.    [English:  The song has been sung by her.]

            Usage:  Past-experience tense verbs express an action or condition that occured before now at an

                        unspecified time or times.  Often they describe an experience.

                        When, or how many times, the past event occurred is not specified. 

To specify the event’s time, use past-simple tense.  

            Active form:  have + verb-root + hyphnette + “d”.

            Passive form:  have + been + verb-root + hyphnette + t

 Note:  the word “has” doesn’t exist in Peoplese.  [English “has” → Peoplese “have”.]

            Relevant words for this tense:  already, before, ever, once, yet, sofar, never, not yet.

            Examples:  I have travel۔d to Japan.  I travel۔d to Japan dur recent۔est March.

Past-to-past-continuous  [English “past perfect continuous.]

Active:  She had been sing۔ing dur an hour…    [English:  She had been singing for an hour…]

Passive:   –                                                                      –

Usage:  Verbs in this tense indicate an action or condition that began in the past and continued to

another point in the past.  Emphasis is on duration, not action.

                        This tense is ideal for demonstrating cause and effect.

            Active form:  had + been + verb-root + hyphnette + “ing”

            Examples:  She had been wait۔ing almost an hour when he arrive۔d.

                        He had not even been work۔ing one month, before he wuz job·terminate۔d.

                        He win۔d the race because he had been strenuous۔ly train۔ing.

Past-conditional  [English “conditional perfect”]

            Active:  She would have sing۔t the song, if…    'English:  She would have sung the song, if….]

            Passive:  The song would have been sing۔t by her.       The song would have been sung by her.

            Note: "would" can be substituted with "should" or "could".

            Examples:  If i had known, i would have prepare۔d.  If only he had propose۔d, i would have marry۔d he.

Future-simple  [English:  “simple future”]

            Active:  She will sing the song.   [English:  She will sing the song.]

            Passive:  The song will be sing۔t by she.    [English:  The song will be sung by her.]

            Active form:  will + verb-root

            Passive form:  will be + verb-root + hyphnette + t

            Usage:  Future-simple verbs refer to activity in the future.

            Example:  Today i will go to school.  [English:  Today I am going to go to school.]

 Future-continuous  [English:  “future continuous”, “future progressive”]

            Active:  She will be sing۔ing the song.    [English:  She will be singing the song.]

            Passive:   –                                                                      –

            Form of future-continuous verbs:  will be + verb-root + hyphnette + ing

            Usage:  Verbs in this tense are used when a future action is interrupted, or when two future actions

occur simultaneously.  Emphasis is on the action, not on the duration.

            Examples:  I will be wait۔ing at the bus station when you arrive.

At six oclock I will still be work۔ing.  (Note:  adverb “still” can be placed anywhere.)

                      By the time we arrive, everybody will be eat۔ing.

            Note:  Negative “not” is added before “be”.  Example:  I will not be work۔ing in France next year.

Future completion  [English:  “future perfect”]

            Active:  She will have sing۔t the song.    [English:  She will have sung the song.]

            Passive:  The song will have been sing۔t by she.    [English:  The song will have been sung by her.]

            Active form:  will + have + verb + hyphnette + “d”

            Passive form:  will + have + been + verb-root + hyphnette + t

            Usage:  Verbs in this tense refer to an action that will occur before another action or event in the future.

            Examples:  By next year, i will have retire۔d.  By the end of my trip, i will have travel۔d to ten nations.

                        By next month i will have reside۔d here nine years.

Future-imperative

            Active:  She must sing the song tomorrow.    [English;  She must sing the song tomorrow.]

            Passive:  The song must be sing۔t tomorrow.    [English:  The song must be sung tomorrow.]

Future-to-future-continuous  [English  “future perfect continuous”]

            Active:  She will have been study۔ing by the time…   [English:  She will have been studying by the time…]

            Passive:  –                                                                      –

            Active form:  will + have + been + verb-root + hyphenette + “ing”

            Usage:  Verbs in this tense indicate an action or condition that begins the in future and continues to

                     another point in the future.  Emphasis is on duration, not action..

            Examples:  She will have been study۔ing 22 years by the time she receive her doctorate.     

 ACTIVE & PASSIVE MODES  [English “voice”]

            Sentences have two modes:  active-mode and passive-mode.  Most sentences are active-mode.

                        Active-mode sentence:  the sentence-subject initiates the action.

                                    Ex:  The boy throw۔d the ball.  Ex:  The boy throw۔d the ball to the dog.

                                    Form of active-mode sentence:  action-initiator + verb ( + action-receiver ).

                        Passive-mode sentence:  the sentence-subject receives the action.

                                    Form of passive-mode sentence:

action-receiver + copula + verb-root + hyphenette + t + by + action-initiator.

            (“by + action-initiator” is optional.)

                                                Copula forms:  be, being, iz, wuz, will be, wuz being, have been, had been,

will have been.

                                                (“get” is not a substitute for a copula in passive-mode constructions.)

                                    Ex:  The ball wuz throw۔t.  Ex:  The ball wuz throw۔t by the boy.

                                    The copula designates the tense.

                                                Ex:  The song wuz sing۔t yesterday; the song will be sing۔t again tomorrow.

                                    Preceding the copula, other words can be added.  E.g., should, can, could, must.

                                                Ex:  Our cat must be feed۔t twice per day.

                                                Ex:  The festival could have been start۔t much early۔er.

                        Passive-mode explanation:

                                    Passive-mode removes emphasis from the subject of the sentence.

                                                The focus is on the object, not on the subject (which may or may not be added).

                                    Passive-mode is ideal when:

                                                The receiver of the action is more important than the initiator of the action.

                                                            Ex:  The hero will be reward۔t by the community.

                                                The intiator of the action is unknown.

                                                            Ex:  The house wuz vandalize۔t.

                                                The initiator of the action is unimportant.

                                                            Ex:  The town wuz establish۔t long ago.

                                                            In scientific and technical writing, focus is typically on the result.

                                                The initiator of the action is best not mentioned.

                                                            Ex:  A mistake wuz make۔t.  (Who to blame, not the issue.)

                                    The initiator of the action, when mentioned, is usually added in a prepositional phrase.

                                                Ex:  The girl wuz rescue۔t by a police۔woman.

                                    There are no restrictions on what follows a passive-mode-verb.

                                                Ex:  A holiday iz schedule۔t dur next Friday.

                                    Passive–mode-verbs are enhanced by adverbs.

                                                Ex:  Those four songs iz always sing۔t beautyful۔ly.

                                    [English, by using a past-tense verb form (i.e. past-participle) to indicate passive mode, 

     often confuses by combining different tenses in the same sentence. 

     Ex:  The criminal will be (future tense) punished (past tense).

The hero is (present-tense) rewarded (past tense).

     The problem is that English has no unique method for indicating passive-mode.]

                        If no advantage to using passive-mode, active-mode is generally preferable.                    

            English present-particples and past-participles.

                        No such concept in Peoplese.

                        English present- and past-participles used as adjectives appear in Peoplese as adnouns.

English past-participles usually describe somebody’s feelings, using verb form “to be”.

                                                In such cases, Peoplese uses the verb “feel” followed by an adnoun,

often with an adnoun ending, such as hyphnette y. 

                                                Ex:  English “I am exhausted” → Peoplese “I feel exhaust۔y.”

                                                Ex:  English “He was amused.” → Peoplese “He feel۔d amuse۔y.”

     Ex:  exhaust۔y task, interest۔y situation.

                                    English present-participles used as adjectives likewise appear as adnouns in Peoplese.

                                                Ex:  English “exciting situation” → Peoplese “excite۔y situation

                                    English irregular past-participles used as adjectives appear in Peoplese as passive adnouns.

                                                Ex:  stolen purse → steal۔t purse, proven theory → prove۔t theory

                        English present- and past-partciples are used as helping verbs to form verb tenses.

                                    Peoplese uses past-tense, continuing-tense, and passive-mode verbs to form tenses.

                        English present- and past-participles are used for passive voice.

                                    Peoplese uses verb-root + hyphnette t for passive mode.

 INFINITIVES

            Form:  to + verb-root

            Explanation:  In Chinese a verb can follow another verb; e.g. 我要去, I want go.

                        In Spanish, the second verb is an infinitive; e.g. Quiero ir, I want to go.

            Peoplese tends toward adding “to” between verbs, but optional if not needed for clarity.

                        Ex:  I want to become a nurse.  [Natural phrasing in Europe and the Americas.]

                        Ex:  I want become a nurse.  [Natural phrasing in eastern Asia.]    

                        Both examples are correct in Peoplese.

            English constructions using “be” are often overly complicated, and can easily be rewritten.

                        Ex:  English “I am glad to be living here” → I iz glad to live here.

            “used” + infinitive verb indicates an action that occurred in the past but is no longer occurring.

                        Ex:  I used to smoke cigarettes. (not any more)

             Infinitives (like gerunds) can be used as nouns, both as subjects and objects.

                        Ex:  To work is to thrive.  I love to dance.

ADVERBS

            An adverb is a descriptive word whose chief function is to enhance a verb by adding description.

                        Ex:  She cheerful۔ly help۔d.  He happy۔ly agree۔d.

            Adverbs also enhance other adverbs.

                        Ex:  The dog very quick۔ly run۔d away.  She sing۔d incredible۔ly beautyful۔ly.

            Introducers introduce phrases and sentences by adding meaning to them.  (See description below.)

                        Ex:  Logical۔ly, …  Ironic۔ly, …  Luck۔yly…  Realistic۔ly…  Personal۔ly, …  Initial۔ly …

 Peoplese adverbs do not enhance or modify adnouns.  [Unlike English]

            Typically but not necessarily, adverbs preceed verbs. 

                        Ex:  They joyful۔ly marry۔d, and live۔d happy۔ly ever after.

  Criterion:  Must be completely clear which verb the adverb enhances.

 Default form:  adnoun + hyphnette + ly.

                        Ex:  quick۔ly, happy۔ly, mature۔ly, true۔ly, un۔tidy۔ly.

            Compound Adverb Suffixes

                        Adnoun suffixes “۔less” and “۔ish” can be combined to adverb suffix “۔ly”

to form compound adverb suffices “۔lessly” and “۔ishly”..

Suffix “۔less” means “without”; suffix “۔ish” means “similar but different”.

                                            Ex:  flaw۔lessly, child۔ishly.

                        Ex:  Consider the English sentence: “He is healthy, because he eats healthily.”

                                    The English adjective is “healthy”, the English adverb “healthily”.

                                    The Peoplese adnoun is “health۔y”, the Peoplese adverb “health۔yly”

                                    Peoplese:  He iz health۔y, because he eat health۔yly.

            [English adverb word-ending “ally” is not generally used after adnouns in Peoplese.

                        Ex:  barbaric۔ly  ← English “barbarically”, because “barbaric” is the adnoun-root.

                        Ex:  acoustic۔ly ← English “acoustically”, because “acoustic” is the adnoun۔root.

                        Ex:  basic۔ly ← English “basically”, because “basic” is an adnoun۔root (also a noun-root).]

            Many of English’s oldest adverbs do not have ۔ly suffixes.

                        Ex:  also, always, behind, down, everywhere, hence, later, never, not, now, often, quite,

                                  somewhat, still, there, therefore, thus, today, very, yesterday.

            Combining two English words into a single Peoplese adverb:

 When two English words form a meaning that is not an obvious result of the combination

 of those two words, Peoplese combines them into a single Peoplese word.

                       Adverb ex:  enmass, enroute, infact, ingeneral, inkind, inperson, intandem, intoto, invain

justnow, justhen, moreso, nolonger, nomatter, nosooner, nowonder, outloud, viceversa.

(“just” in Peoplese refers to justice.)

INTRODUCERS

            Introducers are single introductory words which color the meaning of a sentence or phrase.

            Introducers usually appear at the beginning of a sentence, often followed by a comma.

                        Often it is the sentences verb that the introductory-word refers to.

                                    Ex:  Rare۔ly do we exercise.  (I.e., we rare۔ly exercise.)

            Form:  word-root + hyphnette + ly

            Examples

                        Ex:  Present۔ly, electricity in the city is sufficient.  (The implication is that in the past, and/or

                                    in the future, electricity was or may not be sufficient.)

                        Ex:  Ideal۔ly, everybody should be honest.

            Introducers added later in a sentence often temporarily mislead the reader.

                        Ex:  She wuz poor student initial۔ly, yet later she excel۔d.

                                    (The reader learns that she was a poor student, then realizes she is a good student.)

 CONJUNCTIONS

            Conjunctions are words that link words and clauses within a sentence.  They contribute to fluidity.

            Common conjunctions include:  after, although, and, as if, aslongas, because, before, even if, even

                        though, if, incase, lest, or, since, therefore, though, thus, unless, until, yet.

            Conjunctions which occur in pairs include:  both / and, either / or, neither / nor, not only / but also.

            Ex:  I want to travel to foreign nations, and chat with foreign friends.

            Note that “so” is not a synonym for “thus” or “therefore”;

  Neither “as”, “for”, or “since” are synonyms for “because”.

 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

            A prepositional phrase is a phrase that consists of a preposition and a preposition-object.

                        A nounarticle and/or an adnoun is often inserted before the preposition-object.

            A prepositional phrase enhances (adds description to) the sentence in which it appears.

                        Ex:  She pick۔d a flower in the park.  The boy is play۔ing with a red balloon.

            Prepositional phrases can be inserted anywhere in a sentence as long as the meaning is clear.

                        Ex:  After work, he shop۔d at the grocery store.  He shop۔d at the grocery store after work.

                                    Note, however, the subtle difference in the above two sentences:  in the first, the

                                    emphasis is what he did after work; in the second, his stop at the store is emphasized.

  Sentences often have several prepositional phrases.

  Common prepositions:  about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, before,

       behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, despite, down, dur [English “during”], except,

       for, from, in, inside, into, near, of, off, on, outside, over, past, per, through, to, under, up, with, without.

 INTERJECTIONS

            Interjections are words that interject emotion, sentiment, or other meaning.

            Common interjections:  wow, oh, ha, 

            More interjections:  aha, alas, bingo, boo, eek, gee, golly, hey, oops, ouch, phooey, shh, shoo, yeah, yo, yuck.

            Usually interjection are a one-word sentence, thererfore capitalized, and followed by a punctuation mark.

                        Punctuation after interjections follows regular punctuation rules. 

                                    Ex:  Wow!  Oh?  Oh!  Ha!  Uh.  Eek!  Ouch!

                        Yet interjections can occur within sentences, typically with quotation marks.

                                    Ex:  “Ouch!”, she utter۔d, withdraw۔ing her hand from the hot stove.

            The interjection “uh” is useful in informing the listeners that you intend to continue your sentence,

                        but that you need a moment to come up with the appropriate word.  The alternative is to pause,

in which case the listeners might assume you have completed your sentence.

                        Ex:  My intention wuz, uh, not to punish but to instruct.

                        “uh” is often useful, when Peoplese is your foreign language, to buy time to remember the word.

                        Ex:  We iz plan۔ing, uh, a picnic.

 WRONG IS WRONG

            As explained above and emphasized elsewhere in this website, for casual Peoplese spealers and writers, there is no “wrong” language.  The grammar points articulated above are guidelines; the higher level the Peoplese speaker, the more they will be adhered to.  Professionals, during professional duties, are expected to adhere to the above grammar rules.  Species language Peoplese not only welcomes but encourages variations from all of people’s many langauges, so that different ethnicitys can add ethnic flavor.  Market-level Peoplese speakers, global travelers, Internet marketers, service workers -- most people in most circumstances -- need not waste time and energy and money striving for grammatical correctness.  Learn a core of root words and the prefixes and suffixes, and you are good to go.  The goal is to communicate.  Most Peoplese speakers will be content with the four main verb tenses.  Yet Peoplese is capable of even the most complex and nuanced expression.

            A major impediment to learning foreign languages, teachers know, is students’ fear of speaking incorrectly.  This is not a problem with Peoplese.  If anybody tells you that your Peoplese is “wrong”, ta is wrong.